geography

study of the earth's surface

includes people's responses to topography and climate and soil and vegetation

Geography is the study of the locational and spatial variation of both physical, biological and human phenomena on Earth. The word derives from the Greek languageGreek words ''γη'' or !''γει&alpha ;''? ("Earth") and !''γραφ&eps ilon;ιν''? ("to describe" and "to write").commonsCategory:Geography Modern geography is a diverse discipline that draws influence from almost every other arena of knowledge. Geographers draw upon other disciplines according to their particular research interests and, while subjects such as biology and economics have a powerful influence, there are geographers who draw upon the expertise such as sociology, psychology and sports science, among many others.Within the discipline there have been many long-running tensions among those seeking to define geography - whether as a 'science' or as a 'humanity', as a 'systematic' subject or 'regional' specialism and so forth - which at various times have come close to destroying geography as an academic discipline.

Structure of geography - William Hughes - who taught the geography of the Holy Lands to divinity students at King's College London - defined geography in an address in 1863:"Mere place names are not geography. To know by heart a whole gazeteer full of them would not, in itself, constitute anyone a geographer. Geography has higher aims than this: it seeks to classify phenomena (alike of the natural and of the political world insofar as it treats of the latter) to compare, to generalise, to ascend from effects to causes and in doing so to trace out the great laws of nature and to mark their influence upon man. In a word, geography is a science, a thing not of mere names, but of argument and reason, of cause and effect."''This was a specific rejection of geography as a merely descriptive discipline and also defined it as inclusive of both the physical world and the human. Within the discipline, however, there are many areas of specialism. Modern geographers tend to specialise in one of the broad branches (or sub-branches). However, most introductory geography syllabuses seek to ensure that geographers have at least working knowledge of the main focus of each branch of the subject.

Physical geography - Physical geography focuses on geography as an Earth science (and is sometimes called Earth System Science). It aims to understand the physical layout of the Earth, its weather and global flora (plants)flora and fauna (animals)fauna patterns. Many areas of physical geography make use of geology, particularly in the study of weathering and sediment movement. Physical Geography can be divided into the following broad categories:

Geomorphology

Hydrology

Glaciology

Biogeography

Climatology

Pedology (soil study)

Coastal geographyCoastal/Marine studies

Geodesy

Palaeogeography

Environmental geographyEnvironmental Geography and management

Landscape ecologyExact lines between these different areas are often difficult to draw. Sometimes Oceanography is included as a branch within physical geography, but is now considered a separate subject in its own right.Related topics: Earth's atmosphereAtmosphere - Archipelago - Continent - Desert - Island - Landform - Ocean - Sea - River - Lake - Ecology - Soil - Timeline of geography, paleontology - Geostatistics - Environmental science - Oceanography - Environmental studies

Human geography - Human geography is a branch of geography that focuses on the study of patterns and processes that shape human interaction with various environments. It encompasses human, political, cultural, social, and economicseconomic aspects. While the major focus of human geography is not the physical landscape of the Earth (see Physical geography) it is hardly possible to discuss human geography without referring to the physical landscape on which human activities are being played out, and environmental geography is emerging as a link between the two.Human geography can be divided into broad categories, such as:

Economic geography

Development geography

Population geography or Demography*

Urban geography

Social geography

Behavioral geography

Cultural regionCultural geography

Political geography, including Geopolitics*

Historical geography

Regional science

Strategic geography

Sexuality and Space

Military geography

Feminist !geography*? Distinction between these fields of study have become increasingly blurred over time and the above list should not be considered definitive.Related topics: Countries of the world - Country - Nation - State - Personal union - Province - County - City - Municipality - Central_Place_TheoryCentral place theory - Urban morphology

Socio-environmental geography - During the time of environmental determinism, geography was defined not as the study of spatial relationships, but as the study of how humans and the natural environment interact. Though environmental determinism has died out, there remains a strong tradition of geographers addressing the relationships between people and nature. There are two main subfields of socio-environmental geography:

cultural and political ecology (CAPE) and

risk-hazards research.

Cultural and political ecology - Cultural ecology grew out of the work of Carl O. SauerCarl Sauer in geography and a similar school of thought in anthropology. It examined how human societies adapt themselves to the natural environment. Sustainability science has been one important outgrowth of this tradition. Political ecology arose when some geographers used aspects of critical geography to look at relations of power and how they affect people's use of the environment. For example, an influential study by Michael Watts argued that famines in the Sahel are caused by the changes in the region's political systempolitical and economic system as a result of colonialism and the spread of capitalism.

Risk-hazards research - Research on hazards began with the work of geographer Gilbert F. White, who sought to understand why people live in disaster-prone floodplains. Since then, the hazards field has expanded to become a multidisciplinary field examining both natural hazards (such as earthquakes) and technological hazards (such as nuclear reactor meltdowns). Geographers studying hazards are interested in both the dynamics of the hazard event and how people and societies deal with it.

Historical geography - This branch seeks to determine how cultural features of the multifarious societies across the planet evolved and came into being. Study of the landscape is one of many key foci in this field - much can be deduced about earlier societies from their impact on their local environment and surroundings.; '''What's in a name? Historical geography and the Berkeley School '''"Historical Geography" can indeed refer to the reciprocal effects of geography and history on each other. But in the United States, it has a more specialized meaning: This is the name given by Carl O. SauerCarl Ortwin Sauer of the University of California, Berkeley to his program of reorganizing cultural geography (some say all geography) along regional lines, beginning in the first decades of the 20th Century.To Sauer, a landscape and the cultures in it could only be understood if all of its influences through history were taken into account: Physical, cultural, economic, political, environmental. Sauer stressed regional specialization as the only means of gaining expertise on regions of the world.Sauer's philosophy was the principal shaper of American geographic thought in the mid-20th century. Regional specialists remain in academic geography departments to this day. But many geographers feel that it harmed the discipline in the long run: Too much effort was spent on data collection and classification, and too little on analysis and explanation. Studies became more and more area specific as later geographers struggled to find places to make names for themselves. This probably led in turn to the !Quantitative_revolution#The_19 50s_Crisis_in_Geography? 1950s crisis in Geography which nearly destroyed it as an academic discipline.

History of geography - See main article: History of geography .]]The ancient GreeceGreeks are the first known culture to actively explore geography as a science and philosophy. Mapping by the Roman EmpireRomans as they explored new lands added new techniques. During the Middle Ages, Arabs such as Idrisi, Ibn Batutta, and Ibn Khaldun maintained the Greek and Roman techniques and developed new ones. Following the journeys of Marco Polo, interest in geography spread throughout Europe. The great voyages of exploration in 16th century16th and 17th century17th centuries revived a desire for both accurate geographic detail, and more solid theoretical foundations. This period is also known as Great Geographical Discoveries. By the 18th century, geography had become recognized as a discrete discipline and became part of a typical university curriculum in Europe (especially Paris and Berlin).Over the past two centuries the quantity of knowledge and the number of tools has exploded. There are strong links between geography and the sciences of geology and botany, as well as economics, sociology and demographics. In the West during the 20th century, the discipline of geography went through four major phases: environmental determinism, regional geography, the quantitative revolution, and critical geography.

Geographic techniques - As spatial interrelationships are key to this synoptic science, maps are a key tool. Classical cartography has been joined by a more modern approach to geographical analysis, computer-based geographic information systems (GIS).

''Cartography'' studies the representation of the Earth's surface with abstract symbols (map making). Although other subdisciplines of geography rely on maps for presenting their analyses, the actual making of maps is abstract enough to be regarded separately. Cartography has grown from a collection of drafting techniques into an actual science. Cartographers must learn cognitive psychology and ergonomics to understand which symbols convey information about the Earth most effectively, and behavioral psychology to induce the readers of their maps to act on the information. They must learn geodesy and fairly advanced mathematics to understand how the shape of the Earth affects the distortion of map symbols projected onto a flat surface for viewing. It can be said, without much controversy, that cartography is the seed from which the larger field of Geography grew. Most geographers will cite a childhood fascination with maps as an early sign they would end up in the field. software.]]

''Geographic Information Systems'' deals with the storage of information about the Earth for automatic retrieval by a computer, in an accurate manner appropriate to the information's purpose. In addition to all of the other subdisciplines of geography, GIS specialists must understand computer science and database systems. GIS has so revolutionized the field of cartography that nearly all mapmaking is now done with the assistance of some form of GIS software.

''Geographic quantitative methods'' deal with numerical methods peculiar to (or at least most commonly found in) geography. In addition to spatial analyses, you are likely to find things like cluster analysis, discriminant analysis, and non-parametric statistical tests in geographic studies.In their study geographers use four interrelated approaches:

Systematic - Groups geographical knowledge into categories that can be explored globally

Regional - Examines systematic relationships between categories for a specific region or location on the planet.

Descriptive - Simply specifies the locations of features and populations.

Analytical - Asks ''why'' we find features and populations in a specific geographic area.

Related fields -

Urban and regional planning - Urban planning and regional planning use the science of geography to assist in determining how to develop (or not develop) the land to meet particular criteria, such as safety, beauty, economic opportunities, the preservation of the built or natural heritage, etcetera. The planning of towns, cities and rural areas may be seen as applied geography although it also draws heavily upon the arts, the sciences and lessons of history. Some of the issues facing planning are considered briefly under the headings of rural exodus, urban exodus and Smart Growth.

Regional science - In the 1950s the regional science movement arose, led by Walter Isard to provide a more quantitative and analytical base to geographical questions, in contrast to the more qualitative tendencies of traditional geography programs. Regional Science comprises the body of knowledge in which the spatial dimension plays a fundamental role, such as regional economics, resource management, location theory, urban planningurban and regional planning, transport and communication, human geography, population distribution, landscape ecology, and environmental quality.

See also -

List of geography topics

!:Category:Geographical_term_st ubsGeographical terms

List of countries

List of reference tables#Geography and placesGeography reference tables

Map

Geographic magazines

National Geographic Society (United States)

National Geographic Bee (United States)

Point of Beginning

Royal Geographical Society (United Kingdom)

External links -

aag.org - Association of American Geographers

gisuser.com - GISuser.com, information-rich portal about GIS

populationdata.net - PopulationData.net

freemaps.de - Free Maps Germany

ericdigests.org - Using Literature To Teach Geography in High Schools. ERIC Digest.

ericdigests.org - Teaching Geography at School and Home. ERIC Digest.

ericdigests.org - The National Geography Content Standards. ERIC Digest.

geo-guide.de - Geo-Guide extensive list of academic resources on geography and earth science

geopium.org - Geopium: Geopolitics of Illicit Drugs in Asia

nationalgeographic.com - National Geographic Online

rgs.org - Royal Geographical Society

rcgs.org - Royal Canadian Geographical Society

canadiangeographic.ca - Canadian Geographic

hypergeo.free.fr - Hypergeo : Geographical Encyclopedia

rare-maps.com - Antique and Rare Maps - Art Source International - Links to rare and antique maps and to cartography !resources.Category:Geography*Category:School !subjectsab:Географиaf: Geografieals:Geografiear:جغ� �افياan:Cheografíaast:Xeo grafíaaz:Coğrafiyabg:Гео� �рафияba:Географи яbe:Геаграфіяbn:ভ� ��গোলbs:Geografijabr:Jeo grafica:Geografiaco:Geografiac s:Geografiecy:Daearyddiaethda: Geografide:Geographieet:Geogra afiael:Γεωγραφίαes:Ge ografíaeo:Geografioeu:Geograf iafo:Landafrøðifr:Géographi efy:Geografyfur:Gjeografiegl:X eografíako:지리학hi:भू गोलhr:Geografijaio:Geogr afioid:Geografiia:Geographiaie :Geografieit:Geografiahe:גא� �גרפיהka:გეოგრ� ��ფიაcsb:Geògrafijôks: Geografiakv:География ky:Географияsw:Jiogra fiala:Geographialv:Ģeogrāfij alt:Geografijalb:Geographieli: Geografiehu:Földrajztudomány mk:Географијаmg:Jeog rafiamt:Ġeografijams:Geografi nl:Geografiends:Geographieja:� ��理学no:Geografinn:Geografi oc:Geografiaos:Географ� �pl:Geografiapt:Geografiaro:Ge ografierm:Geografiaru:Геог рафияsc:Zeografiascn:Geog rafiasimple:Geographysk:Geogra fiasl:Geografijasr:Геогр� �фијаfi:Maantiedesv:Geogra fitl:Heograpiyate:భూగో ళ? !శాస్త్రముth: ภูมิศาสตร์ vi:Địa? lý !họctr:Coğrafyauk:Геогр афіяur:جغرافيہvo:Ta ledavzh:地理学

Wisc-Online
Wisc-Online is a digital library of Web-based learning resources. Instructors in a variety of fields have authored these learning objects. This resource can teach and remediate and offer many different kinds of media to meet learners’ needs. These resources can be used when learning a basic concept, applying concepts in real world applications, checking and testing mastery, or providing simulation.
http://www.wisconline.org/

Aragoneses Viajes: flights, travels, hotels, transfers, car rent. Travel agency in Argentina.
Agencia de viajes en Argentina: turismo argentino y del mundo. Reserve Vuelos, Hoteles, Paquetes, Asistencias, Autos, etc... Travel Agency: Argentine, international Tourism. Reserve Tickets, Hotels, Assistance, Cars
http://www.aragonesesviajes.com/

Teaching and World Geography
Resources especially for world geography and general teaching -- all grade levels.
http://www.margb.com/

Santorini-web.com
Santorini tourist guide. Providing hotels accommodation, tourist information, history, geography, weather, and weddings info.
http://www.santorini-web.com/

SWIAT NAUKI - polish edition of scientific american
Polish popular science magasine based on Scientific American
http://www.swiatnauki.pl/

Canadian Geographic
Maps, Travel, Photography, Geography Contests, and Canadian Geographic magazine subscriptions.
http://www.canadiangeographic.com/

Atelier des Mots et des Regards (Words and Sights)
a multidisciplinary site about image, photography and texte
http://www.a-m-e-r.com/

Geographixx.de
Geography-Portal
http://www.geographixx.de

Barcelona Field Studies Centre
Geography, Ecology and Biology Fieldwork in Barcelona, Spain.
http://www.geographyfieldwork.com/

Nordic Adventure Travel
A comprehensive information and service website on Iceland with online booking possibilities. Ideal for trip preparations.
http://www.nat.is/

Geography Home Page
Includes articles, annotated links, daily geographic quizzes, bulletin board, and chat room.
http://geography.about.com/

Miller's Revenge
Seattle-based, blues-influenced rock band. Site includes sound files and pictures.
http://members.aol.com//_ht_a/msrevenge2/MRindex.Html

Geography Network
An Internet portal to spatial data.
http://www.geographynetwork.com/

NationalGeographic.com
Explore National Geographic Online.
http://www.nationalgeographic.com/